The 12 Fallacies

For the most of us, when we are going about our day of procrastinating instead of completing the homework assigned to us or are otherwise involved in something outside of our Philosophy 300 class, we tend to give little thought to the concept of a “fallacy” or how much we encounter them in our daily lives.  Lucky for me though, I get to spend this fine hour of the morning (12:38am to be exact) and give a little insight into what a fallacy is and provide 12 examples as to type of fallacies there are.  In the short version a fallacy is very a simple concept: it can be any kind of error in cognitive argument or debate, but when we dive a little deep we find around 213 different varieties fallacies (thank god we don’t have to cover them all).  With all those different versions of the same general idea one would think the great minds of philosophers such as Aristotle, who was the first to create a complete study of fallacies, would have narrowed down the playing field so there one specific definition that fallacy would fall under. Nope.  A fallacy is one thing, and yet can many things at the same time, and for that reason the term can be vague, some referring “to (a) a kind of error in an argument, (b) a kind of error in reasoning (including arguments, definitions, explanations, and so forth), (c) a false belief, or (d) the cause of any of the previous errors including what are normally referred to as ‘rhetorical techniques.”  This rather indefinite way of defining fallacies are one of the reasons we continue to see to that there are numerous different conflicting and coinciding clarifications of fallacies that can be used during an argument. 

 

The 12 Fallacy Examples: 

1. Begging the Question: This is a type of “circular reasoning” where the conclusion is decided upon using principles that assume that outcome.  EX: Boys and girls are both human. But football is a sport for boys, not girls, so only boys can play football. 
2. Ad Hominem: When a person, usually after they become infuriated during the course of an argument, chooses to make an unrelated statement in an attempt to undermine emasculate that arguer.  EX: This kid must have a terrible fantasy football lineup. He’s only twelve years old, there is no way a twelve year old knows more about football than me. 
3. Equivocation: To equivocate something is to dishonestly change the meaning of a term while debating.  EX: My friend John has a gambling problem, most people with gambling problems have lots of debt.  People in debt can become homeless. John is homeless.  
4. Slippery Slope: When one says that taking the first step causes a chain of events that leads to a second step, turning into a cycle that will probably end with consequences.  EX: If one listens to Rap music, then they will sell drugs and become a pimp.  Selling drugs and becoming a pimp can lead to jail.  Rap music often leads to jail.  
5. Straw Man: When a person feature a simply contested your opponents standpoint, a position that opponent would not support, and then ensue by attacking the rebutted position having faith that you have weakened your challengers standpoint.  EX: Person #1: “the majority of immigrants coming across are honest, hardworking people escaping poverty and/ot violence in their native country in the hopes of finding a job in the U.S. to better their lives.” Person #2: “So all people who come across the U.S. southern border are in this country to undercut the American born workforce and steal jobs”
6. Tu Quoque: A simple definition is when one person finds out the others argument is hypocritical because they have not taken the advice themselves that they may have just given you.  EX: So let me get this straight, you’re gonna tell me I should own a gun because I will never use it and might accidentally shoot my own foot off, but you yourself own 4 firearms. Your argument is invalid.
7. Non-Sequitur: When the reasoning behind an argument is reinforced using a very weak reasoning or unrelated logic.  EX: Yea, juggling chainsaws is a huge risk and you might cut off your arms, but you might also be struck by lightning at anytime.  If you’re gonna risk being stuck by lightning, you should juggle chainsaws. 
8. False Dichotomy: When one is limited to an unfair number of choices (known as the Black-or-White fallacy when dealing with only 2 choices, or the False Dilemma when given few choices with little time to decide.)  EX: When your girlfriend asks, “does these jeans make my hips or thighs look bigger?” 
9. Argument from Ignorance: This form of argument arises when one either does not know that something is false and considers it true, or believes that a statement which is true is taken as being false.  EX: I have never seen aliens with my own two eyes, thus there is no other life in our universe.
10. Red Herring: A deviation in the argument that takes someone off course for bearing in mind pertinent information.  EX:   There are still 30 million people without healthcare or under-insured in America today.  We need to figure out how to pay for their insurance and how they will get to the hospitals for appointments/emergencies.  Let’s from a committee that collects data on transportation methods for those 30 million people. 
11. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A fallacy that happens when one prophesies to another, and that act of prophesying creates the desired effect.  The one being told the prophecy believes it to be true even though the other knows it is false.  EX:  Bob’s mom told him when he was younger that his father was a great football player, thus it was in his DNA and he himself would be in the NFL someday.  After Bob heard this, he trained and practiced every day, soon becoming the best in on his high school team, gained a full scholarship to college, and working towards the NFL. 
12. Gambler’s Fallacy: When a gamble incorrectly adopts the idea that past results can influence future ones.  EX: Damn, I’ve lost almost all my money on these last few hands of cards. But I’ve lost so many times now, I’m due for a win, so if I put in the rest of my money I’ll win it all back!